The effect of blended learning on tacking technique improvement in preteen sailing

Participants

A total of 31 school-age children, including 12 girls and 19 boys, voluntarily participated in the current study. All participants had undergone one month of sailing training in Optimists at a promotion center affiliated with the (blinded). Prior to their inclusion in this study, parents provided written informed consent for their children’s participation. Furthermore, the study was conducted in accordance with the principles outlined in the 2013 Helsinki Declaration. The experimental protocol received approval from the local Research Ethics Committee (CPP SUD: N° 0551/2023).

Participants were selected based on the following inclusion criteria: (i) They had to be between 11 and 13 years old, (ii) no history of musculoskeletal or orthopedic disorders, injuries, or surgeries in the six months preceding the tests that could have affected physical abilities, (iii) no visual problems, (iv) proficiency in swimming, demonstrating proven skills in this sport, and (v) were required to regularly attend sailing training sessions in Optimist upon their entry into the training center.

The exclusion criteria included: (i) additional sailing experience beyond the one month of training provided in this study, (ii) health conditions that could limit physical participation, such as uncontrolled severe asthma or cardiac disorders, (iii) significant cognitive or learning disabilities that could hinder the ability to understand and follow instructions, and (iv) a history of trauma related to aquatic activities or a fear of water.

A post hoc power analysis was conducted using the G*Power software³¹ for the main ANOVA split-plot design (three groups, two measurements). Using an effect size of f = 0.25, which aligns with commonly accepted benchmarks in social sciences research³², and setting alpha at 0.05 with sphericity assumed (ϵ = 1), the analysis indicated that the sample size of 31 had a power of 0.84. This surpasses the conventional 0.80 threshold, confirming that the study has sufficient power to detect a medium effect size.

After the completion of the pre-test, participants were randomly assigned to one of the three following groups: Blended Learning Group based on video feedback combined with online written instructions (BLIV = 11), Blended Learning Group based on online written instructions only (BLI = 10), and Control Group (CONT = 10). Randomization was performed using computer-generated random numbers to ensure unbiased allocation of participants to the groups. This method was implemented to ensure a balanced distribution of participant characteristics across the groups and to reduce potential biases in the study. At baseline (T0), a within-group comparison revealed no significant differences between the BLIV, BLI, and CONT groups in terms of age, height, and weight. Additional details are available in Table 1.

Task and material

The task to be performed was the tacking maneuver, a fundamental maneuver carried out when sailing an Optimist. It involves a change in the boat’s direction when the wind shifts from one side to the other. To execute a tacking maneuver, a dinghy must turn the boat sharply into the wind from a close-hauled position, so that it momentarily points directly into the wind with the sail(s) luffing, then continues until the sail(s) fill again with wind from the opposite side. The process involves turning the boat into the wind until the wind blows on the other side of the sail and requires the athletes to change the boat’s course to maintain balance⁴. An optimal performance must meet al.l the success criteria and be completed within a short time frame. It is a complex and fundamental maneuver in the context of sailing, requiring both technical skill and a keen understanding of the dynamics of the marine environment, particularly the interactions between wind and water³³, Fig. 1.

Tacking maneuver of an optimist.

The equipment used for this study comprised eleven single-handed dinghies of the Optimist type, each equipped with a single sail. The technical features of this boat directly impact its performance and behavior during maneuvers at sea. The Optimist stands out with its rectangular-shaped hull made of reinforced polyester resin and fiberglass, with a width of 1.20 m, a length of 2.18 m, and a total weight of 35 kg. The sail, with a trapezoidal shape, includes the tack, clew, and halyard attachment points, along with a fourth point held by a vang. An Optimist vang is a pole just over 2 m long, with one end attached to the sail and the other to the middle of the mast at a height of 2.26 m. The sail area is 3.25 square meters. The choice of this particular dinghy is justified by its popularity as a learning platform for sailing and its suitability for this age group.

A 4-meter-long Zodiac equipped with a 9.9-horsepower outboard motor, carrying a captain guiding the boat and a coach overseeing the sessions. The coach intervenes (i) to correct incorrect movements through verbal feedback or (ii) in case of emergencies.

Eleven video cameras ([GoPro HERO8 Black] HD: 60 frames per second), each mounted on the lower part of the Optimist mast and facing the student, were used to record their technical movements during learning and testing sessions. This positioning allows the camera to capture the entire area of the tacking action. The recorded video of each student in the BLIV group was sent individually to them via the Messenger Kids app after each learning session. Twenty life jackets were worn by participants before the start of each session as a safety measure during navigation.

Procedure

Participants underwent test sessions to assess technical performance, execution time of the tacking maneuver, and the level of theoretical knowledge one day before (T0) and one day after (T1) a four-session tacking motor learning period. All test sessions were scheduled in the morning, between 10 a.m. and 11 a.m., when the water current speed ranged from 0 to 0.2 knots, and the wind speed was 10 knots from the north. Water current speed was measured using the Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP WorkHorse Monitor 1200 kHz RDI TeledyneTM) (Epler, 2010), while wind speed was measured by the Global Forecast System, a worldwide meteorological forecasting model developed by the National Weather Service³⁴.

Subjects in each group followed a tacking learning program consisting of two sessions per week over a two-week period. The duration and structure of each learning session were established in accordance with the recommendations of professional sailing coaches, who confirmed that this time frame was sufficient to adequately learn the tacking maneuver, considering the participants’ prior skills in basic sailing techniques. Learning sessions were planned based on weather forecasts for the Tunis region obtained from the Windfinder website. Sessions took place on days when the wind speed was in the range of 8 to 12 knots. Each learning session in this study comprised two blocks of ten repetitions.

Throughout all learning sessions, participants maintained their regular training activities. In this context, a professional sailing coach defined success criteria and was involved in qualitative analysis and verbal correction of incorrect movements. Additionally, this coach was not informed of the participants’ assignment to the groups. To ensure consistency across learning sessions, the coach used standardized phrases and instructions for all participants, including key directives during the maneuver. Each participant, regardless of the group, received verbal feedback after three attempts of the maneuver in each block.

The day of the pre-test and post-test, none of the participants had access to techno-pedagogical video assistance or pedagogical guidance. During each test session, all participants performed three attempts, being simply instructed to ‘do their best.’ After completing the tacking maneuver, each child completed the theoretical knowledge level test.

Learning sessions Before the start of each learning session, participants from each group gather in a room to watch a video demonstration of the tacking maneuver exercise displayed on a 42-inch Sony television screen. This video includes verbal instructions (audiovisual sequence). Subsequently, students move to the beach where they engage in a general warm-up for the lower and upper limbs, as well as a specific warm-up involving preparatory exercises tailored to the session. During these learning sessions, the operating modes of the groups were as follows:

Control Group (CONT): Receives only simultaneous verbal corrections from the coach while practicing the tacking maneuver exercise.

Blended Learning Group based on Written Instructions (BLI): Similar to the control group, also benefits from an online written instruction sheet containing a technical description of the movements to be executed. Each participant is responsible for carefully reading these instructions sent via the ‘messenger kids’ application at home. These written instructions were sent to the participants by the researcher after each learning session. Participants in this group were asked to read these instructions, focusing on key technical aspects such as body positioning and sail handling. Each participant in this group had the opportunity to consult the written instructions at any time as needed. This approach aims to deepen individual understanding of the movements online and enhance participants’ engagement in the learning process.

Blended Learning Group based on Video Feedback and Written Instructions (BLIV): Similar to the BLI group; however, each participant receives individual video feedback along with online written instructions via the ‘Messenger Kids’ application after each learning session to identify technical errors and correct their mental representation of the action. Participants in this group were asked to analyze their video feedback, focusing on key technical aspects such as body positioning and sail handling. Each participant in this group had the opportunity to review the video feedback multiple times at their own pace, using all the video display control buttons. They could also verify the presence of the success criteria described in the paper by reading them and checking them against the video. The video feedback and written instructions were sent to the participants by the researcher.

Test sessions During the test sessions, each participant is required to navigate a loop between two buoys, sailing in a zigzag pattern with three tacks to maneuver around the windward buoy. Subsequently, they must undergo a computer-based test, error detection test based on viewing a video showing a novice child performing the tacking maneuver, to assess their level of theoretical knowledge.