A systematic review of income and education reporting in psychedelic clinical trials
Galvão-Coelho, N. L. et al. Classic serotonergic psychedelics for mood and depressive symptoms: a meta-analysis of mood disorder patients and healthy participants. Psychopharmacology 238, 341–354 (2021).
Google Scholar
Luoma, J. B., Chwyl, C., Bathje, G. J., Davis, A. K. & Lancelotta, R. A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials of psychedelic-assisted therapy. J. Psychoact. Drugs 52, 289 (2020).
Google Scholar
Belouin, S. J. et al. Policy considerations that support equitable access to responsible, accountable, safe, and ethical uses of psychedelic medicines. Neuropharmacology 219, 109214 (2022).
Google Scholar
Mehtani, N. J., Anderson, B. T. & Mitchell, J. M. Psychedelics in addiction treatment—navigating a sociopolitical rift. JAMA Neurol. 81, 313–314 (2024).
Google Scholar
Michaels, T. I., Purdon, J., Collins, A. & Williams, M. T. Inclusion of people of color in psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: a review of the literature. BMC Psychiatry 18, 245 (2018).
Google Scholar
Morales, J., Quan, E., Arshed, A. & Jordan, A. Racial disparities in access to psychedelic treatments and inclusion in research trials. Psychiatr. Ann. 52, 494–499 (2022).
Google Scholar
Hughes, M. E. & Garcia-Romeu, A. Ethnoracial inclusion in clinical trials of psychedelics: a systematic review. eClinicalMedicine 74, 102711 (2024).
Google Scholar
George, J. R., Michaels, T. I., Sevelius, J. & Williams, M. T. The psychedelic renaissance and the limitations of a white-dominant medical framework: a call for indigenous and ethnic minority inclusion. J. Psychedelic Stud. 4, 4–15 (2020).
Google Scholar
Williams, D. R., Priest, N. & Anderson, N. Understanding associations between race, socioeconomic status and health: patterns and prospects. Health Psychol. 35, 407–411 (2016).
Google Scholar
Largent, E. A. & Lynch, H. F. Addressing financial barriers to enrollment in clinical trials. JAMA Oncol. 4, 913–914 (2018).
Google Scholar
Sharrocks, K., Spicer, J., Camidge, D. R. & Papa, S. The impact of socioeconomic status on access to cancer clinical trials. Br. J. Cancer 111, 1684–1687 (2014).
Google Scholar
Ortiz, C. E. et al. Special considerations for evaluating psilocybin-facilitated psychotherapy in vulnerable populations. Neuropharmacology 214, 109127 (2022).
Google Scholar
Darin-Mattsson, A., Fors, S. & Kåreholt, I. Different indicators of socioeconomic status and their relative importance as determinants of health in old age. Int. J. Equity Health 16, 173 (2017).
Google Scholar
Duncan, G. J., Daly, M. C., McDonough, P. & Williams, D. R. Optimal indicators of socioeconomic status for health research. Am. J. Public Health 92, 1151–1157 (2002).
Google Scholar
Mõttus, R. et al. Towards understanding the links between health literacy and physical health. Health Psychol. 33, 164–173 (2014).
Google Scholar
Stormacq, C., Van den Broucke, S. & Wosinski, J. Does health literacy mediate the relationship between socioeconomic status and health disparities? Integrative review. Health Promot. Int. 34, e1–e17 (2019).
Google Scholar
Kutcher, S., Wei, Y. & Coniglio, C. Mental health literacy: past, present, and future. Can. J. Psychiatry 61, 154–158 (2016).
Google Scholar
Brijnath, B., Protheroe, J., Mahtani, K. R. & Antoniades, J. Do web-based mental health literacy interventions improve the mental health literacy of adult consumers? Results from a systematic review. J. Med. Internet Res. 18, e165 (2016).
Google Scholar
Gorczynski, P. & Sims-Schouten, W. Evaluating mental health literacy amongst US college students: a cross sectional study. J. Am. College Health 72, 676–679 (2024).
Google Scholar
Bonabi, H. et al. Mental health literacy, attitudes to help seeking, and perceived need as predictors of mental health service use: a longitudinal study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 204, 321–324 (2016).
Google Scholar
Halme, M. et al. Educational level and the use of mental health services, psychotropic medication and psychotherapy among adults with a history of physician diagnosed mental disorders. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 69, 493–502 (2023).
Google Scholar
Alegria, M., Sud, S., Steinberg, B. E., Gai, N. & Siddiqui, A. Reporting of participant race, sex, and socioeconomic status in randomized clinical trials in general medical journals, 2015 vs 2019. JAMA Netw. Open 4, e2111516 (2021).
Google Scholar
Brewerton, T. D. et al. MDMA-assisted therapy significantly reduces eating disorder symptoms in a randomized placebo-controlled trial of adults with severe PTSD. J. Psychiatr. Res. 149, 128–135 (2022).
Google Scholar
Bogenschutz, M. P. et al. Percentage of heavy drinking days following psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy vs placebo in the treatment of adult patients with alcohol use disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 79, 953–962 (2022).
Google Scholar
Raison, C. L. et al. Single-dose psilocybin treatment for major depressive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 330, 843–853 (2023).
Google Scholar
2022 US Census. US Census Bureau (2023).
von Rotz, R. et al. Single-dose psilocybin-assisted therapy in major depressive disorder: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomised clinical trial. EClinicalMedicine 56, 101809 (2023).
Google Scholar
Human Development Reports (United Nations Development Programme, 2024); https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data
European Commission. Organisation of the education system and of its structure. Eurydice (2024).
Education and Science (Federal Statistical Office of Switzerland, 2024); https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/education-science.html
Bouso, J. C., Doblin, R., Farré, M., Alcázar, M. A. & Gómez-Jarabo, G. MDMA-assisted psychotherapy using low doses in a small sample of women with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Psychoact. Drugs 40, 225–236 (2008).
Google Scholar
Espinosa, C. Spain: higher education attainment 2007–2023. Statista (2024).
Palhano-Fontes, F. et al. Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Psychol. Med. 49, 655–663 (2019).
Google Scholar
Education GPS (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2024); https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=BRA
Craide, S. Minimum wage at $224.57 as of January. Agência Brasil (2015).
Johnson, S. B. & Anderson, P. L. Don’t ask, don’t tell: a systematic review of the extent to which participant characteristics are reported in social anxiety treatment studies. Anxiety Stress Coping 29, 589–605 (2016).
Google Scholar
Polo, A. J. et al. Diversity in randomized clinical trials of depression: a 36-year review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 67, 22–35 (2019).
Google Scholar
Williams, C. P., Senft Everson, N., Shelburne, N. & Norton, W. E. Demographic and health behavior factors associated with clinical trial invitation and participation in the United States. JAMA Netw. Open 4, e2127792 (2021).
Google Scholar
Scott, K. M. et al. Associations between subjective social status and DSM-IV mental disorders: results from the World Mental Health surveys. JAMA Psychiatry 71, 1400–1408 (2014).
Google Scholar
Baum, A., Garofalo, J. P. & Yali, A. M. Socioeconomic status and chronic stress. Does stress account for SES effects on health? Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 896, 131–144 (1999).
Google Scholar
Crielaard, L., Nicolaou, M., Sawyer, A., Quax, R. & Stronks, K. Understanding the impact of exposure to adverse socioeconomic conditions on chronic stress from a complexity science perspective. BMC Med. 19, 242 (2021).
Google Scholar
Kirby, J. B. & Kaneda, T. Neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage and access to health care. J. Health Soc. Behav. 46, 15–31 (2005).
Google Scholar
Maurer, J. et al. Socioeconomic status, protective factors, and mental health problems in transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood: results of the longitudinal BELLA study. Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. (2023).
Google Scholar
Clinical trials map. UC Berkeley Center for the Science of Psychedelics (2025).
Goodwin, G. M., Malievskaia, E., Fonzo, G. A. & Nemeroff, C. B. Must psilocybin always “assist psychotherapy”? Am. J. Psychiatry 181, 20–25 (2024).
Google Scholar
Yockey, R. A., Vidourek, R. A. & King, K. A. Trends in LSD use among US adults: 2015–2018. Drug Alcohol Depend. 212, 108071 (2020).
Google Scholar
Keyes, K. M. & Patrick, M. E. Hallucinogen use among young adults ages 19–30 in the United States: changes from 2018 to 2021. Addiction 118, 2449–2454 (2023).
Google Scholar
Kruger, D. J., Glynos, N. G., Fields, C. W., Herberholz, M. & Boehnke, K. F. An assessment of psychedelic knowledge among people using psychedelics naturalistically. J. Psychoact. Drugs 55, 420–424 (2023).
Google Scholar
Viña, S. M. & Stephens, A. L. Minorities’ diminished psychedelic returns. Drug Sci. Policy Law 9 (2023).
Jones, G. M. Race and ethnicity moderate the associations between lifetime psychedelic use (MDMA/ecstasy and psilocybin) and major depressive episodes. J. Psychopharmacol. 37, 61–69 (2023).
Google Scholar
Finegan, M., Firth, N., Wojnarowski, C. & Delgadillo, J. Associations between socioeconomic status and psychological therapy outcomes: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Depression Anxiety 35, 560–573 (2018).
Google Scholar
Mills, J. A. et al. Socioeconomic predictors of treatment outcome in adults with major depressive disorder: an analysis of the CO-MED trial. Psychiatr. Serv. 73, 965–969 (2022).
Google Scholar
Eisner, B. Set, setting, and matrix. J. Psychoact. Drugs 29, 213–216 (1997).
Google Scholar
Neitzke-Spruill, L. Race as a component of set and setting: How experiences of race can influence psychedelic experiences. J. Psychedelic Stud. 4, 51–60 (2019).
Google Scholar
Noorani, T. Containment matters: set and setting in contemporary psychedelic psychiatry. Philos. Psychiatry Psychol. 28, 201–216 (2021).
Google Scholar
Wolff, M. et al. Measuring psychotherapeutic processes in the context of psychedelic experiences: validation of the General Change Mechanisms Questionnaire (GCMQ). J. Psychopharmacol. 38, 432–457 (2024).
Google Scholar
Marseille, E., Bertozzi, S. & Kahn, J. G. The economics of psychedelic-assisted therapies: a research agenda. Front. Psychiatry 13, 1025726 (2022).
Google Scholar
Carr, J. M. Development of Standards for the Collection of Socioeconomic Status in Health Surveys Conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services (National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics, 2012).
Measuring Socioeconomic Status and Subjective Social Status (American Psychological Association, 2015); https://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/class/measuring-status
Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G. & Ickovics, J. R. Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: preliminary data in healthy white women. Health Psychol. 19, 586–592 (2000).
Google Scholar
Brennan, W., Kelman, A. R. & Belser, A. B. A systematic review of reporting practices in psychedelic clinical trials: psychological support, therapy, and psychosocial interventions. Psychedelic Med. 1, 218–229 (2023).
Google Scholar
Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U. & Jesse, R. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology 187, 268–283 (2006).
Google Scholar
Anderson, B. T. et al. Psilocybin-assisted group therapy for demoralized older long-term AIDS survivor men: an open-label safety and feasibility pilot study. EClinicalMedicine 27, 100538 (2020).
Google Scholar
Bogenschutz, M. P. et al. Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: a proof-of-concept study. J. Psychopharmacol. 29, 289–299 (2015).
Google Scholar
Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study. Lancet Psychiatry 3, 619–627 (2016).
Google Scholar
Carhart-Harris, R. et al. Trial of psilocybin versus escitalopram for depression. N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 1402–1411 (2021).
Google Scholar
D’Souza, D. C. et al. Exploratory study of the dose-related safety tolerability and efficacy of dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in healthy volunteers and major depressive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 47, 1854–1862 (2022).
Google Scholar
Davis, A. K. et al. Effects of psilocybin-assisted therapy on major depressive disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 78, 481–489 (2021).
Google Scholar
Griffiths, R. R. et al. Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized double-blind trial. J. Psychopharmacol. 30, 1181–1197 (2016).
Google Scholar
Johnson, M. W., Garcia-Romeu, A., Cosimano, M. P. & Griffiths, R. R. Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction. J. Psychopharmacol. 28, 983–992 (2014).
Google Scholar
Ross, J. et al. Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial. J. Psychopharmacol. 30, 1165–1180 (2016).
Google Scholar
Schneier, F. R. et al. Pilot study of single-dose psilocybin for serotonin reuptake inhibitor-resistant body dysmorphic disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 161, 364–370 (2023).
Google Scholar
Sloshower, J. et al. Psilocybin-assisted therapy for major depressive disorder: an exploratory placebo-controlled fixed-order trial. J. Psychopharmacol. 37, 698–706 (2023).
Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. M. et al. MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled phase 3 study. Nat. Med. 27, 1025–1033 (2021).
Google Scholar
link
![Student Loan Debt Statistics [2026]: Average + Total Debt](https://educationdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/page-1-3.png "Student Loan Debt Statistics [2026]: Average + Total Debt")
