Education and training statistics at regional level
Based on the latest information available for EU Member States (Czechia: 2020 data), in 2021 there were an estimated 93.6 million pupils and students enrolled across the EU in all levels of education from pre-primary to tertiary (as covered by ISCED levels 02–8).
International standard classification of education (ISCED)
As national education systems vary in terms of structure and curricular content, statistics on education and training are compiled according to the international standard classification of education (ISCED).
ISCED is the reference classification for organising formal education programmes and related qualifications by education levels and fields into internationally agreed categories. The most recent version of the classification – ISCED 2011 – was adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in November 2011 and identifies the following levels of education:
- early childhood education – ISCED level 0;
- primary education – ISCED level 1;
- lower secondary education – ISCED level 2;
- upper secondary education – ISCED level 3;
- post-secondary non-tertiary education – ISCED level 4;
- short-cycle tertiary education – ISCED level 5;
- bachelor’s or equivalent level – ISCED level 6;
- master’s or equivalent level – ISCED level 7;
- doctoral (PhD) or equivalent level – ISCED level 8.
The term ‘tertiary education’ refers to ISCED levels 5–8.
Early childhood education
Research has shown that early experiences of children are often critical for their long-term development. Early childhood education and care programmes which are intentionally designed to support children’s cognitive, language, physical and socio-emotional development are considered as educational in the ISCED classification (ISCED level 0, early childhood education) [2]. Early childhood education programmes – typically designed to introduce young children to organised instruction outside of the family context; programmes have an intentional education component and target children below the age of entry into ISCED level 1 (primary education) – constitute the first level of education in education and training systems and play a key role in redressing ‘unequal’ life chances, tackling inequalities through preventing the formation of early skills gaps.
Within the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030), one of the seven key policy targets concerns the share of children aged between 3 years and the starting age of compulsory primary education participating in early childhood education and care. Eurostat data on early childhood education (ISCED level 0) are used to measure progress towards the goal that, by 2030, at least 96 % of children in this age group are participating in early childhood education and care [3].
In 2021, there were 26 regions across the EU where every child between the age of 3 years and the age for starting compulsory primary education participated in early childhood education
Based on the latest available information for EU Member States, there were an estimated 15.5 million children enrolled in early childhood education across the EU in 2021 (Czechia, Greece and Malta: 2020 data; Belgium: only pre-primary education); young boys accounted for a 51.5 % share of pupils at this level. Map 1 shows a more detailed analysis for 199 NUTS level 2 regions; note that statistics presented for Germany relate to NUTS level 1 regions, while national data are presented for the Netherlands. There were considerable differences in regional participation rates, with the highest rates generally recorded in the westernmost regions and lower rates across most eastern regions.
Looking in more detail: in 2021, the share of children between the age of 3 years and the age for starting compulsory primary education participating in early childhood education had already reached the strategic target of 96.0 % in approximately one third (69 out of 199) of the EU regions for which data are available; they are shaded using three different teal tones in Map 1. These regions with the highest rates – where (practically) all children in this age group participated in early childhood education – were principally located across Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, France and Sweden. There were also three regions in Portugal, two regions in Germany (NUTS level 1), the capital regions of Lithuania and Poland, as well as single regions in Italy and Hungary where the policy target of 96.0 % had already been achieved. At the very top end of the distribution, there were 26 regions in the EU where every child between the age of 3 years and the age for starting compulsory primary education participated in early childhood education (as shown by the darkest shade of teal).
In Map 1, the regions with participation rates below the strategic target may be identified as they are shaded using three different golden tones. In 2021, the share of young children participating in early childhood education was less than 75.0 % in 5 out of 199 EU regions for which data are available. These regions with relatively low participation rates (shown by the darkest shade of gold) were located in Panonska Hrvatska (Croatia) and Východné Slovensko (Slovakia), as well as three regions in Romania – Bucureşti-Ilfov, Nord-Est and Vest. The lowest share was recorded in Panonska Hrvatska (61.9 %).
Upper secondary education
School attendance in the EU Member States is compulsory at least for primary and lower secondary education. Young people who have successfully completed lower secondary education may enter upper secondary education (ISCED level 3), when they may have to make choices concerning subjects or specialisations to study, as well as their future education and/or career paths. Upper secondary education in the EU typically ends when students are aged 17 or 18. These programmes are designed primarily to prepare students so that they may continue their studies at a tertiary level (general programmes), or to provide them with the necessary skills and competencies that are relevant for a specific occupation or trade (vocational programmes).
Just under half of all upper secondary students in the EU were enrolled in vocational programmes
Based on the latest available information for EU Member States, there were an estimated 18.0 million students enrolled in upper secondary education programmes across the EU in 2021 (Czechia: 2020 data). Just under half of these (48.7 %) were enrolled in vocational education programmes that tend to be more technical or practical in nature; the remainder followed general education programmes that tend to be more academic.
Map 2 reflects the organisation of educational systems at a national level and the relative position of vocational education and general education programmes. Among the 218 NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available (note that statistics presented for Germany relate to NUTS level 1 regions), the split was fairly even between the number with a majority enrolled in vocational education programmes and the number with a majority enrolled in general education programmes. There were 102 regions across the EU where a majority of upper secondary students followed vocational education programmes. Some of these differences between regions can be attributed to the availability of and perceptions concerning general and/or vocational education.
In 2021, there were 25 regions across the EU where the share of upper secondary students following vocational education programmes was at least 70.0 % (as shown by the darkest shade of blue in Map 2). These regions were concentrated in:
- Czechia (2020 data) – every region except for the capital region of Praha;
- the Netherlands – seven out of 12 regions;
- Austria – six out of nine regions.
This group also included both of the regions in Croatia for which data are available – Panonska Hrvatska and Jadranska Hrvatska – as well as Západné Slovensko (Slovakia), Vzhodna Slovenija (Slovenia) and Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano/Bozen (Italy). At the top of the ranking, there were three regions in the EU where more than three quarters of all upper secondary students were enrolled in vocational education programmes: Panonska Hrvatska in Croatia (75.5 %), Oberösterreich in Austria (76.0 %) and Severozápad in Czechia (77.0 %; 2020 data).
At the other end of the range, there were 23 regions across the EU where the share of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education programmes was less than 35.0 % in 2021 (they are shown with a yellow shade in Map 2). Nine of this group were capital regions, characterised by a relatively high concentration of general and academic establishments: Hovedstaden (Denmark), Berlin (Germany), Eastern and Midland (Ireland), Attiki (Greece), Comunidad de Madrid (Spain), Ile-de-France (France), Sostinės regionas (Lithuania), Warszawski stołeczny (Poland) and Stockholm (Sweden).
Male upper secondary students were more likely (than female students) to enrol in vocational education programmes that tend to be more technical/practical than academic
Based on the latest available information for 2021 (Czechia: 2020 data), there were an estimated 9.2 million male upper secondary students across the EU, a majority of whom (55.6 %) were enrolled in vocational education programmes. By contrast, there were an estimated 8.8 million female upper secondary students, with a considerably lower share (41.6 %) enrolled in vocational education programmes. As such, a greater proportion of female students in upper secondary education were enrolled in more academic studies, following general education programmes.
The first part of Figure 1 (left-hand side) highlights those regions with the highest and lowest shares of upper secondary students following vocational education programmes; note the ranking is based on overall shares for the whole population (males and females combined).
Looking in more detail at the results for 2021, more than four out of every five male upper secondary students followed a vocational education programme in:
- Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano/Bozen in Italy (82.3 %);
- Vzhodna Slovenija in Slovenia (82.0 %);
- Severozápad (81.6 %), Moravskoslezsko (80.5 %) and Jihozápad (80.3 %) in Czechia (2020 data);
- Oberösterreich in Austria (81.3 %).
There were six regions across the EU where, in 2021, more than 7 out of 10 female upper secondary students followed a vocational education programme:
- five of these six regions were located in the Netherlands – Groningen (72.5 %), Friesland (72.3 %), Flevoland (72.1 %), Drenthe (71.9 %) and Overijssel (71.6 %);
- the other was in Czechia – Severozápad (72.3 %; 2020 data).
The second part of Figure 1 (right-hand side) highlights those regions with the biggest and smallest changes in their shares of upper secondary students following vocational education programmes between 2013 and 2021; note the ranking is based on overall changes for the whole population (males and females combined) and that the period under consideration is the longest time series for which EU data are available.
The share of upper secondary students in the EU who were enrolled in vocational education programmes fell by 2.1 percentage points from 50.8 % in 2013 (including 2014 data for Croatia) to 48.7 % in 2021 (including 2020 data for Czechia). During this period, the proportion of upper secondary students following vocational education programmes fell in 129 out of 213 NUTS level 2 regions. Some of the largest reductions in the relative importance of vocational education were recorded across Italy, Portugal and Sweden. This was particularly noticeable in Sydsverige, Västsverige and Norra Mellansverige in Sweden, as well as Marche in Italy, and Região Autónoma da Madeira in Portugal; the share of students enrolled in upper secondary vocational education programmes fell by more than 12.0 percentage points in all five of these regions.
Among the 84 NUTS level 2 regions where the proportion of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education programmes rose between 2013 and 2021, there were nine that reported double-digit increases. The highest increases were concentrated in Hungary (all eight regions) and Ireland (only national data available for a comparison over time), peaking – for both males and females – in the westernmost Hungarian region of Nyugat-Dunántúl. Its share of female upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education programmes increased by 32.6 percentage points during the period under consideration, while the corresponding increase for male students was 29.5 percentage points.
Tertiary education
Tertiary education (ISCED levels 5–8) builds on secondary education, providing learning activities at a higher level of complexity. This level of education – provided by universities and other tertiary educational institutions – can play an important role in society, fostering innovation, increasing economic development and growth, and more generally improving individual well-being.
The number of people enrolling in tertiary education across the EU has risen in recent decades, reflecting a number of factors, such as: demographic patterns; changes in labour force participation (particularly for women); increased demand from employers for tertiary education qualifications for jobs that previously required a secondary level of education; an increased awareness of the benefits of tertiary education; access to student finance, scholarships and other benefits; different patterns of learning mobility (within and from outside of the EU); an increased demand for longer tertiary education, such as the extension from a bachelor’s degree to master’s or doctoral (PhD) studies; an increasing share of adults participating in lifelong learning.
There were an estimated 18.5 million students enrolled in the EU’s tertiary education institutions in 2021 (this figure includes 2020 data for Czechia). As such, tertiary students accounted for almost one in five (19.9 %) of the total number of pupils and students enrolled within the EU’s education system. A majority of the students enrolled in the tertiary education sector were female (54.2 % of the total).
In 2021, there were 11.0 million EU students enrolled in bachelor’s programmes. This figure was slightly more than twice as high as the count of students enrolled in master’s programmes (5.4 million). The other two types of tertiary programmes had fewer students: 1.4 million were enrolled in short-cycle programmes (either academic or vocational) and 0.7 million in doctoral programmes. As noted above, women accounted for a majority of the students enrolled within tertiary education: this gender gap was particularly apparent among students studying for a master’s degree (57.5 % were women) and somewhat smaller among those studying for a bachelor’s degree (53.7 % were women). By contrast, men accounted for a small majority of the students studying for a doctoral degree (51.2 %) and for a short-cycle tertiary education qualification (51.6 %).
Unsurprisingly, the highest numbers of tertiary students were recorded in some of the EU’s principal urban centres that have large populations. In 2021, there were five NUTS level 1 regions with more than half a million tertiary students enrolled: Nordrhein-Westfalen in Germany had the highest count at 833 900, followed by Ile-de-France (the French capital region), Este in Spain, Centro and Nord-Ovest (both in Italy).
A more detailed analysis reveals that Nordrhein-Westfalen (521 500), the Spanish region of Este (368 300) and the Dutch region of West-Nederland (344 500) had the highest numbers of tertiary students studying for a bachelor’s degree in 2021. The highest numbers of students studying for a master’s degree were observed in Ile-de-France (306 600), Nordrhein-Westfalen (274 000) and the Italian region of Centro (207 600), while the biggest numbers of students studying for a doctoral degree were recorded in Nordrhein-Westfalen (38 300), Baden-Württemberg (Germany; 31 600) and Este (Spain; 30 000).
Map 3 shows the proportion of tertiary students who were enrolled to study for a short-cycle, bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral degree. Note that each national education system has its own specific characteristics, with an education offer that is focused on particular fields or levels of education. This may explain, why there were 27 NUTS level 1 regions where there were no students enrolled to study for a short-cycle tertiary education qualification, as this educational level was not applicable in 15 regions, while the data for this level was combined with data for another educational level in 12 regions. In a similar vein, there were no students enrolled to study for a master’s or doctoral (PhD) degree in Åland (a small island region of Finland).
In 2021, almost one third of the tertiary students in Canarias (Spain) and Régions Ultrapériphériques Françaises (France) were studying for a short-cycle tertiary education qualification. Leaving aside the atypical case of Åland – where every tertiary student was studying for a bachelor’s degree – the highest shares of bachelor’s students were recorded in the Greek regions of Nisia Aigaiou, Kriti and Voreia Elláda, with close to 9 out of 10 tertiary students studying for a bachelor’s degree. Cyprus (a single region at NUTS level 1) was the only region in the EU to report a higher number of tertiary students studying for a master’s rather than a bachelor’s degree. Almost half (46.4 %) of all tertiary students in Cyprus was enrolled on a master’s degree course; the next highest shares were recorded in the German regions of Sachsen (43.8 %) and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (43.1 %). Luxembourg (a single region at NUTS level 1) was the only region in the EU to record a double-digit share of doctoral students. Some 12.2 % of all tertiary students in Luxembourg was enrolled on a doctoral degree course; the next highest shares were recorded in the German regions of Sachsen (9.9 %) and Baden-Württemberg (7.8 %).
Educational attainment
Educational attainment is measured by looking at the highest level of education (based on the ISCED classification) that an individual has successfully completed. A basic level of education is desirable for all, as it provides the opportunity to participate in economic and social life. Nevertheless, people with higher levels of educational attainment generally tend to experience a wider range of job opportunities, higher levels of income and tend to be more satisfied with life, while they usually have a lower likelihood of being unemployed.
People with at least an upper secondary level of educational attainment
The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) includes a complementary indicator for measuring progress in relation to educational attainment, adding to the indicator on early leavers (see below). It is defined as the share of people aged 20–24 with at least an upper secondary (or intermediate) level of educational attainment and the EU aims to increase the share of young people meeting this criterion to at least 90 %.
The last couple of decades have seen a gradual expansion in the number of students graduating across the EU in intermediate (at most upper secondary or non-tertiary post-secondary) and higher (tertiary) levels of education. The share of the EU population aged 20–24 with at least an intermediate level of educational attainment increased between 2002 and 2021 from 76.8 % to 84.4 %. During this period, the share rose almost continuously, the only exception being 2009 (when there was no change). However, this pattern ended in 2022, as the latest information available shows the share of people aged 20–24 with at least an intermediate level of educational attainment falling 0.8 percentage points to 83.6 %, a development that was mainly driven by a decrease in the data reported by Germany.
Map 4 presents information for the share of young people (aged 20–24) with at least an intermediate level of education. Those regions that had already reached the goal of 90.0 % are shaded using three different teal tones. Among the 240 NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available (no data for Mayotte in France or Åland in Finland), there were 17 regions where this measure of educational attainment was at least 95.0 % in 2022 (as shown by the darkest shade of teal). This group of regions with very high shares of young people having attained at least an intermediate level of education were concentrated in Croatia (all four regions) and Greece (5 out of 13 regions). The remaining regions with very high shares included the capital regions of Czechia, Ireland, Lithuania and Romania, as well as single regions in each of Belgium, France, Poland and Slovenia. The highest shares of young people aged 20–24 having attained at least an intermediate level of educational attainment were recorded in:
- two Greek regions – the island region of Voreio Aigaio (99.2 %) and the central region of Thessalia (99.0 %);
- two Croatian regions – the coastal region of Jadranska Hrvatska (98.4 %) and the capital region of Grad Zagreb (98.1 %).
At the other end of the range, there were 21 regions across the EU where less than 70.0 % of all young people aged 20–24 had attained at least an intermediate level of educational attainment in 2022 (as shown by the darkest shade of gold in Map 4). These regions were primarily located in Germany (17 regions), with the northern region of Bremen recording the lowest share in the EU, at 58.2 %. There were also relatively low levels of intermediate educational attainment in Sjælland (Denmark), Guyane (France), Ciudad de Ceuta (Spain) and Região Autónoma dos Açores (Portugal).
Note that statistics on educational attainment pertain to the highest level of attainment reached at the moment of the survey interview and that some people in the target age range might still be studying. Equally, people may leave the region where they completed a particular level of education in order to find work or continue their studies, moving to regions offering a wider range of labour market and educational opportunities. Bearing this in mind, Figure 2 and Map 5 use a different age range to that presented above in Map 4; they are based on an analysis of attainment levels for people aged 25–34 (by when the vast majority of the population have completed their education).
More than one third of young men in the EU had a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification
In 2022, more than two fifths (43.4 %) of the EU population aged 25–34 reported that their highest level of educational attainment was an upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary level of education. Most of these had followed a vocational education programme (31.8 % of the EU population aged 25–34) providing technical or practical skills, rather than a general education programme (11.5 %) that tends to be more academic in nature and is often used as a stepping stone to higher education.
Across the EU, more than one third (35.6 %) of men aged 25–34 reported their highest level of attainment was a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification; this was 7.7 percentage points higher than the corresponding share for women of the same age. The first part of Figure 2 (left-hand side) highlights those regions with the highest and lowest shares of people aged 25–34 having attained (at most) a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification; note the ranking is based on overall shares for men and women combined. Panonska Hrvatska in Croatia was the only NUTS level 2 region in the EU where, in 2022, more than 6 out of 10 people aged 25–34 reported their highest level of attainment was a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification. An analysis by sex reveals:
- there were two regions – Stredné Slovensko in Slovakia and Panonska Hrvatska – where more than 70.0 % of men aged 25–34 reported their highest level of educational attainment was a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification;
- there were three regions – Panonska Hrvatska in Croatia, Vest in Romania and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany – where more than 55.0 % of women aged 25–34 reported their highest level of educational attainment was a vocational upper secondary education or post-secondary non-tertiary qualification.
The second part of Figure 2 (right-hand side) highlights those regions with the biggest and smallest changes between 2014 and 2022 in their shares of people aged 25–34 with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification; note the ranking is based on overall changes for men and women combined.
Across the EU, the share of people aged 25–34 having attained (at most) a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification fell by 3.5 percentage points from 35.3 % in 2014 to 31.8 % in 2022. During the period under consideration, almost two thirds of NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available (151 out of 236 regions) reported a fall in the proportion of people aged 25–34 having attained (at most) a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification. The largest decreases were recorded across Germany: Brandenburg (that surrounds the capital region of Berlin) registered the largest decrease, down 20.2 percentage points, while there were 13 more German regions with falls within the range of 15.3–18.7 percentage points. The largest decrease outside of Germany was reported in the Czech capital region of Praha, where the share of people aged 25–34 having attained (at most) a vocational upper secondary education qualification fell by 14.8 percentage points.
Among the 82 NUTS level 2 regions where the share of people aged 25–34 having attained (at most) a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education qualification rose between 2014 and 2022, the highest increase was recorded in Luxembourg, up 19.3 percentage points. There were seven other regions which recorded double-digit increases: three of these were located in Romania, two in Greece, as well as single regions from each of France and Slovakia.
People with a tertiary level of educational attainment
One of the seven EU policy targets within the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) concerns tertiary educational attainment. The EU seeks to ensure that, by 2030, the share of people aged 25–34 with a tertiary educational attainment should be at least 45.0 %.
Approximately one quarter of all EU regions have reached the policy goal for tertiary educational attainment
In 2022, more than two fifths (42.0 %) of the EU population aged 25–34 had a tertiary level of educational attainment; note that some people within this age group might still be studying. Of the 240 NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available (no data for Mayotte in France or Åland in Finland), there were 72 regions (equivalent to 30 % of all EU regions) where this share had already reached or surpassed the policy target of 45.0 % (as shown by three shades of teal in Map 5). At the top end of the distribution, there were 12 regions where at least 60.0 % of young people aged 25–34 had a tertiary level of educational attainment. Many of these regions appear to act as a magnet for highly-qualified people, exerting considerable ‘pull effects’ through the varied educational, employment and social/lifestyle opportunities that they offer. They included the capital regions of Lithuania, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Hungary, Sweden, Luxembourg and Denmark. Relatively high shares of tertiary educational attainment were also recorded in two regions specialised in research and innovation activities and/or high-technology manufacturing: Utrecht in the Netherlands and País Vasco in northern Spain; Northern and Western in Ireland was the only other region in the EU to record a share above 60.0 %.
At the bottom end of the distribution, there were 17 NUTS level 2 regions in the EU where less than a quarter of all people aged 25–34 had a tertiary level of educational attainment in 2022 (as shown by the darkest shade of gold). They were concentrated in eastern EU Member States – seven out of the eight regions in Romania (the exception being the capital region of Bucureşti-Ilfov), three regions in Hungary, two regions in Bulgaria and a single region in Czechia – but also included three regions in the south of Italy and the outermost region of Guyane (France). Many of these regions were characterised as rural/isolated regions that had a relatively large agricultural sector, with a low level of highly-skilled employment opportunities. Others were characterised by their relatively high specialisation in vocational educational programmes, with students moving into the labour market through apprenticeships and training schemes rather than as a result of obtaining academic qualifications. The lowest regional levels of tertiary educational attainment among people aged 25–34 were recorded in the Hungarian region of Észak-Magyarország (18.2 %), the Czech region of Severozápad (18.0 %) and the Romanian regions of Sud-Est (17.0 %) and Sud-Muntenia (16.0 %).
Transition from education to work
The final section in this chapter provides information on the situation of young people as they aim to transition from education into work. When students complete their studies there may be a number of barriers that restrict their progression into the labour market, for example: a lack of relevant work experience; a lack of skills; a lack of job opportunities in the region where they reside; or high levels of unemployment during an economic downturn.
Early leavers from education and training
Within the EU, education policy seeks to ensure that all people in the EU (irrespective of age) have the skills, knowledge and capabilities to develop their careers. The transition from education into work may prove particularly difficult for people with low levels of literacy and numeracy, those who leave education at an early age, and people coming from disadvantaged backgrounds. One particular area of concern is the proportion of early leavers from education and training. These are individuals aged 18–24 who have at most a lower secondary level of educational attainment (ISCED levels 0–2) and who were not engaged in any further education and training (during the four weeks preceding the EU labour force survey). This indicator forms one of the seven key targets outlined in the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030); the EU has set a goal to reduce the proportion of early leavers to less than 9.0 % by 2030.
Over the last two decades, the share of early leavers from education and training declined across the EU. From a peak of 16.9 % in 2002 (the start of the time series), this share fell each and every year through to 10.5 % by 2017. Having remained unchanged in 2018, there were further falls in the following four years. By 2022, the share of young people who had at most a lower secondary level of educational attainment and who were not engaged in any further education and training was 9.6 %; this was 0.6 percentage points higher than the policy target set for 2030. With relatively few job opportunities available for young people during the COVID-19 crisis, it is possible that some young people deferred their entry into the labour market (during 2020 and/or 2021) and instead sought education and training opportunities.
Across the EU, the share of early leavers from education and training was higher among young men (11.1 %) than among young women (8.0 %)
There is both a spatial and a gender dimension to the issue of early leavers from education and training. The proportion of early leavers tends to be higher in rural and sparsely-populated regions of the EU, as well as in regions characterised as former industrial heartlands. Among other reasons, this pattern may be a reflection of lower life chances and weak local labour markets (which may act as a ‘push factor’ to drive away more talented students). For the gender dimension, a higher proportion of young men (compared with young women) tend to be early leavers. Across the EU, the share of early leavers from education and training in 2022 was 11.1 % among young men, which was 3.1 percentage points higher than the corresponding share among young women (8.0 %). It is however interesting to note that this gender gap narrowed during the last couple of years: the share of early leavers fell 0.7 percentage points among young men between 2020 and 2022, while there was no change in the share recorded for young women.
Almost half of all EU regions had already attained the EU’s policy target for early leavers
In 2022, the share of early leavers from education and training was already less than the 9.0 % policy target in 94 out of 196 NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available (as shown by three shades of gold in Map 6; note the map also provides further information on data coverage). Some of the lowest shares of early leavers were concentrated in Belgium, Czechia, Ireland, Greece, Croatia, the Netherlands and Slovenia. At the bottom end of the distribution, there were four regions that recorded shares below 3.0 %: Utrecht (the Netherlands), Praha (the capital region of Czechia), Kentriki Makedonia (Greece) and Jadranska Hrvatska (Croatia).
At the other end of the range, there were 20 NUTS level 2 regions across the EU where the share of early leavers from education and training in 2022 was at least 15.5 %; they are denoted by the darkest shade of teal in Map 6. This group included multiple regions from each of Germany, (principally eastern and southern) Spain, southern Italy, eastern Hungary and Romania. It also included a number of sparsely-populated, island and/or peripheral regions (note it is likely that a disproportionately high share of students from island and/or peripheral regions have to leave home if they wish to follow a particular course or programme, leaving behind a higher concentration of early leavers). At the top of the distribution, there were two regions where the share of early leavers peaked at more than one quarter of all individuals aged 18–24: Região Autónoma dos Açores in Portugal (26.5 %) and Guyane in France (28.0 %).
The highest regional disparities for early leavers from education and training were observed in the southern EU Member States of Portugal and Greece
Within several EU Member States, there are persistent regional disparities in labour market; for example, some regions that are characterised by labour shortages coexist alongside others that are characterised by persistently high unemployment rates. A population-weighted coefficient of variation provides one measure for comparing these intra-regional disparities in EU Member States. Figure 3 shows that the highest regional disparities in 2021 for the share of early leavers from education and training were recorded in Portugal and Greece, at 62.1 % and 56.8 % (2020 data), respectively. At the other end of the range, the lowest regional disparities – less than 20.0 % – were recorded in the Netherlands, Austria, Sweden and Denmark.
Figure 3 shows there was a modest regional convergence for the share of early leavers from education and training across the whole of the EU between 2011 and 2021, as the coefficient of variation fell from 51.8 % to 47.5 %. However, there were only two EU Member States that reported a reduction in their intra-regional disparities over this period, Bulgaria and Austria. By contrast, the highest increase was observed in Portugal, as regional disparities for the share of early leavers from education and training increased 44.0 percentage points. There were also considerable increases – within the range of 20.4–25.8 percentage points – recorded in Belgium, Hungary, Finland and Greece (2011–2020).
Employment rate of recent graduates from vocational programmes
A Council Recommendation of 24 November 2020 on vocational education and training (VET) for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience (2020/C 417/01) set an EU benchmark for the employment rate of recent graduates from vocational programmes. The policy target – defined in relation to people aged 20–34 having graduated 1–3 years earlier with an upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary vocational education – is for the employment rate of this subpopulation to be at least 82.0 % by 2025.
Between 2015 and 2019, the EU employment rate of recent graduates from vocational education programmes in upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education (as covered by ISCED levels 3 and 4) increased from 72.3 % to 79.1 %. However, it subsequently fell 3.4 percentage points in 2020 as the COVID-19 crisis likely impacted on the number of (new) job opportunities that were open to young people. There was a modest recovery in 2021, with the employment rate rising to 76.2 %, with the recovery accelerating a year later. In 2022, the EU’s employment rate for recent vocational graduates stood above its pre-pandemic level, at 79.7 %; as such, it was 2.3 percentage points below the EU target for 2025.
Map 7 shows that the employment rate of recent vocational graduates was already at or above the EU’s policy target of 82.0 % in 74 out of 151 NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available in 2022 (note the statistics presented for Belgium, Bulgaria and France relate to NUTS level 1 regions, while the latest period available is 2021 for some regions; the notes under the map provide further information on data coverage). These 74 regions with relatively high employment rates are shaded using three different teal tones in Map 7: they included every region (for which data are available) in Germany and the Netherlands, as well as all but one of the regions in Denmark, Austria, Portugal and Sweden, and a large majority of the regions in Czechia and Hungary. Looking in more detail, there were 16 regions across the EU where the employment rate of recent vocational graduates was at least 94.5 % (as shown by the darkest shade of teal). This group included four regions where all recent vocational graduates were in work in 2022: Comunidad Foral de Navarra in Spain, Groningen and Flevoland in the Netherlands, and Norra Mellansverige in Sweden (2021 data).
In 2022, there were 16 NUTS level 2 regions where less than 58.5 % of all recent vocational graduates had found work. The lowest employment rates for this subpopulation were concentrated in southern EU Member States: six (predominantly southern) regions of Italy (two of which had their latest data for 2021), four regions in Spain (one of which had data for 2021) and two regions in Greece. The remainder of this group was composed of three regions from Romania and the French outermost region of Régions Ultrapériphériques Françaises (NUTS level 1). Among these 16, there were 11 regions which had employment rates of recent vocational graduates that were below 50.0 %. The lowest rates were observed in four Italian regions: Basilicata (37.5 %; 2021 data), Calabria (34.8 %), Sicilia (31.2 %) and Campania (30.2 %).
Adult education and training
Lifelong learning – or lifelong education and training – seeks to improve an individual’s knowledge, skills, competences and/or qualifications for personal, social and/or professional reasons. For many occupations, it is increasingly important for the labour force to develop existing skills and learn new ones that are relevant to a specific job or which provide opportunities for new career paths. Some jobs/occupations will likely cease to exist in the future as a result of technological change.
The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) has a specific EU policy target in this area; by 2025, at least 47 % of people aged 25–64 should have participated in adult learning during the previous 12 months. This target was revised in June 2021 as it was included as one of three EU 2030 social targets within the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan; the revised goal is to have, by 2030, at least 60 % of people aged 25–64 participating in education and training every year.
Up until 2021, the data collected by the labour force survey included information on the share of the population that received formal or non-formal education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey; this indicator is used in the analyses below. As of reference year 2022, an additional recall period has been added, with labour force survey statistics also collected for people participating in education and training during the 12 months prior to the survey. At the time of writing (May 2023), this new data collection is not yet available at a regional level.
Prior to the COVID-19 crisis, the share of people aged 25–64 in the EU who participated in education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey had been 10.8 % in 2019. Participation rates fell with the onset of the pandemic (9.1 % in 2020) but rebounded the following year (10.8 % in 2021) and continued to grow thereafter. In 2022, the adult participation rate in education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey was 11.9 %.
The highest levels of adult participation in education and training were recorded in Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden
Map 8 shows participation rates in education and training in 2022; data are presented for 240 NUTS level 2 regions (no data for Ionia Nisia in Greece or Mayotte in France). The regional distribution of adult participation rates was very homogeneous within individual EU Member States, at least in part reflecting national rather than regional education and training initiatives. There were 96 regions that had participation rates that were equal to or above the EU average of 11.9 %; this group included every region of Denmark, Spain, the Netherlands, Austria, Slovenia, Finland and Sweden, as well as Estonia, Luxembourg and Malta (all single regions at this level of detail). At the top end of the distribution there were 24 regions where at least one quarter of all people aged 25–64 participated in education and training during the four weeks prior to the 2022 survey (as shown by the darkest shade of blue in the map). This group included all eight regions of Sweden, where participation rates were higher than in any other region of the EU, peaking at 38.1 % in the capital region of Stockholm. It also included all five regions of Denmark and 9 out of the 12 regions in the Netherlands, with the highest rates observed in Hovedstaden (the Danish capital region) and Utrecht (the Netherlands). There were only two other regions – both capital regions – that reported at least one quarter of all people aged 25–64 participating in education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey; they were Helsinki-Uusimaa in Finland and Bratislavský kraj in Slovakia.
There were 29 NUTS level 2 regions across the EU where the participation rate for adult education and training was below 5.0 % in 2022 (they are indicated by the yellow shade in Map 8). This group was principally concentrated in Bulgaria (all six regions), Greece (10 out of 12 regions; no data for Ionia Nisia) and Croatia (three out of four regions), but also included five regions from Poland, three from Romania, as well as single regions from each of Belgium and Germany. At the bottom end of the range, there were five Bulgarian and two Greek regions that reported adult participation rates for education and learning that were less than 2.0 %, with the lowest rates recorded in the Greek region of Sterea Ellada (1.1 %) and the Bulgarian regions of Severozapaden (1.0 %) and Severoiztochen (0.9 %).
In 2022, some 12.9 % of women aged 25–64 participated in education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey. This was 2.1 percentage points higher than the corresponding share recorded for men (10.8 %). A gender gap with higher participation rates in education and training for women was observed in 192 out of 233 NUTS level 2 regions for which data are available. There were three regions where there was no difference in participation rates between the sexes, while the remaining 38 regions had higher participation rates for men.
Figure 4 shows the largest regional gender gaps for participation rates in education and training. In 2022, the biggest gaps in favour of women were recorded in regions characterised by very high overall participation rates. This was particularly the case for the eight Swedish regions, as their gender gaps in favour of women ranged from 11.5–17.6 percentage points; the largest gap was observed in Mellersta Norrland. The next highest gender gaps in favour of women were recorded in the capital regions of two other Nordic Member States: Helsinki-Uusimaa in Finland (where the gap was 9.8 percentage points) and Hovedstaden in Denmark (9.1 points).
In 2022, adult participation rates in education and training were higher among men (than women) in 38 NUTS level 2 regions. These regions were concentrated across Germany (13 regions), Romania (five regions), Czechia (four regions), Italy (also four regions, principally in the north), Greece and Slovakia (both three regions); in addition, there were one or two regions in each of Belgium, Croatia, the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal. All gender gaps in favour of men were relatively small in size, with the largest gap recorded in the Dutch region of Flevoland (1.6 percentage points).
Source data for figures and maps
Education at regional level
Data sources
Statistics on education and training cover a wide range of topics, such as:
- participation (in terms of enrolments and entrants);
- personnel;
- learning mobility;
- outcomes (in terms of graduates, educational attainment levels, and the transition from education to work);
- foreign languages (in terms of foreign language learning and self-reported language skills);
- expenditure.
As the structure of education systems varies from one country to another, a framework for assembling, compiling and presenting regional, national and international education statistics is a prerequisite for the comparability of data – this is provided by the international standard classification of education (ISCED). ISCED 2011 was adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in November 2011 and is used as the basis for the statistics presented here.
Most EU education statistics are collected as part of a jointly administered exercise that involves the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UNESCO-UIS), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Eurostat, referred to as the UOE data collection exercise. The UOE data collection exercise is based on administrative sources, with the data compiled by education ministries or national statistical authorities. Reference periods are the calendar year for data on expenditure and the school/academic year (classified to the calendar year in which the school/academic year finishes) for all other non-financial data.
Data on regional enrolments are collected separately by Eurostat. These statistics include data for numbers of pupils/students enrolled by age, sex and ISCED level, at NUTS level 2. Their legal basis, from school year 2012–2013 is Commission Regulation (EU) No 912/2013 of 23 September 2013 concerning the production and development of statistics on education and lifelong learning, as regards statistics on education and training systems.
With respect to education statistics, the EU’s labour force survey provides data on the population’s level of educational attainment, the number of early leavers from education and training, the employment rates of recent young graduates, as well as on adult participation in education and training. It covers the population of individuals aged 15 years and more living in private households; information for each new reference year is made available in the spring of the following year.
Indicator definitions
Participation in early childhood education
For the purpose of this publication, the participation rate in early childhood education is defined as the share of children aged between 3 years and the age when compulsory education at the primary level starts; more detailed information on the starting ages for compulsory education and for compulsory primary education is provided in the first two worksheets of this annex. Note that in some countries, the starting age of primary education is not compulsory, while in others compulsory education starts at the pre-primary level (in other words, it may be compulsory to attend early childhood programmes for a year before the start of formal primary education).
Students enrolled in upper secondary education
Students typically enter ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, between the ages of 14 and 16 years; more detailed information is provided in the final worksheet of this annex. Programmes at this level are usually designed to a) complete general secondary education, possibly in preparation for tertiary education and/or b) provide skills relevant for the labour market through vocational secondary education. The number of students enrolled in upper secondary education reflects, to some degree, the demographic structure of each EU Member State and also country-specific policies such as the length of compulsory education and the availability of further training outside of the education system and/or at the end of secondary education.
Vocational education programmes are designed for learners to acquire the knowledge, skills and competencies specific to a particular occupation or trade. Vocational education may have work-based components (for example, apprenticeships, dual-system education programmes). Successful completion of such programmes leads to labour market-relevant vocational qualifications acknowledged as occupationally-oriented by the relevant authorities and/or the labour market.
Students enrolled in tertiary education
Tertiary education is defined as ISCED levels 5–8. It builds on secondary education, providing learning activities in specialised fields of study. Tertiary education comprises short-cycle tertiary education (ISCED level 5), bachelor’s or equivalent (ISCED level 6), master’s or equivalent (ISCED level 7) and doctoral (PhD) or equivalent (ISCED level 8) education. For the first three of these, students generally need to have successfully completed an upper secondary programme, while those wishing to study for a doctorate generally need to have completed a master’s programme.
The number of students in tertiary education may reflect capacities and policies for the development of particular educational levels, but is also linked to qualification requirements, subject choice and/or job opportunities. As students grow older and education becomes more specialised, student mobility generally increases. As such, international flows of students may have a considerable impact on the share/number of students enrolled.
Educational attainment
Educational attainment is a term commonly used to refer to the highest level of education that an individual has successfully completed. The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) introduced two targets.
- The share of early leavers from education and training (defined as people aged 18–24 with no more than a lower secondary education and no longer in education or training) should be less than 9 % by 2030. This target will be supplemented by the analysis of a complementary indicator, namely, the share of people aged 20–24 with at least an upper secondary (or intermediate) level of educational attainment.
- The share of people aged 25–34 with a tertiary educational attainment should be at least 45 % by 2030.
Early leavers from education and training
This indicator is derived from the EU labour force survey. It is defined as the share of the population aged 18–24 with no more than a lower secondary level of educational attainment that are no longer in education or training. The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) introduced a target for the share of early leavers from education and training, whereby this ratio should be less than 9 % in the EU by 2030.
Regional disparities in the rate of early leavers from education and training
Regional labour market disparities are based on the population-weighted coefficient of variation. Calculations are made only for EU Member States that have more than four NUTS level 2 regions; as such, data are not presented for Estonia, Ireland, Croatia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovenia and Slovakia. Note that the coefficient of variation calculated for the EU as a whole includes all regions of the EU, not just those of Member States that have more than four NUTS level 2 regions.
Employment rate of recent graduates from vocational programmes
This indicator concerns recent vocational graduates. These are people who a) have graduated with an upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary vocational education within the previous 1–3 years and b) are not in any further (formal or non-formal) education or training (during the four weeks preceding the labour force survey). The employment rate is calculated as the share of recent vocational graduates who are in employment.
A Recommendation on vocational education and training (VET) for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience (2020/C 417/01) set a benchmark target to be achieved across the EU by 2025. The goal is to ensure that the employment rate of recent graduates aged 20–34 from vocational programmes should reach at least 82.0 %.
Participation rates of adults aged 25–64 in education and training
The target population for adult learning statistics refers to persons aged between 25 and 64 years. These statistics concern adult participation in formal and non-formal education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey interview. Data are collected through the EU’s labour force survey. The denominator used for the ratio consists of the total population of the same age group, excluding those who did not answer the questions concerning participation in education and training.
Within the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, one of the three EU 2030 social targets concerns adult education and training. Its goal is that the share of adults aged 25–64 participating in education and training every year should reach at least 60 % by 2030.
Context
Each of the EU Member States is responsible for its own education and training policy. However, the EU supports national actions and helps Member States to address common education and training challenges through what is known as the open method of coordination. Indeed, the EU provides a policy forum for discussing topical issues (for example, ageing societies, the skills deficits, or global competition) and also provides Member States with an opportunity to exchange best practices. Within this context, the European Commission has presented a wide range of initiatives for developing education and training in the EU, such as: improving key competences (for example, literacy, language skills, digital skills and entrepreneurship); making better use of digital technology for teaching and learning; and developing mutual recognition of diplomas.
The EU is in the process of building a European Education Area, designed to strengthen educational outcomes and learning mobility, promote common values, and facilitate the mutual recognition of diplomas across borders. In her political guidelines for the European Commission, President von der Leyen underlined her commitment to make the European Education Area a reality by 2025: bringing down barriers to learning; improving access to education; enabling students to move more freely between education systems in different countries; enriching life chances by promoting lifelong learning; and encouraging investment in digital skills for both young people and adults alike.
In February 2021, a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) (2021/C 66/01) was adopted. During the subsequent decade, the strategic framework will address five key priorities:
- improving quality, equity, inclusion and success for all in education and training;
- making lifelong learning and mobility a reality for all;
- enhancing competences and motivation in the education profession;
- reinforcing European higher education;
- supporting the green and digital transitions in and through education and training.
As a means of monitoring progress, a series of reference levels (or benchmarks) for average EU performance in education and training have been agreed. These seven EU-level targets should support monitoring strategic education and training priorities during the period 2021–2030:
- the share of low-achieving 15-year-olds in reading, mathematics and science should be less than 15 %, by 2030;
- the share of low-achieving students (in their eighth year of schooling) in computer and information literacy should be less than 15 %, by 2030;
- at least 96 % of children between 3 years old and the starting age for compulsory primary education should participate in early childhood education and care by 2030;
- the share of early leavers aged 18–24 from education and training should be less than 9 % by 2030;
- the share of adults aged 25–34 with a tertiary level of educational attainment should be at least 45 % by 2030;
- the share of recent graduates from vocational education and training benefiting from exposure to work-based learning during their studies should be at least 60 % by 2025;
- at least 47 % of adults aged 25–64 should have participated in learning during the previous 12 months by 2025 (note this target was subsequently extended as part of the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, with the new target to have at least 60 % of adults participating in education and training every year by 2030).
The Digital Education Action Plan (2021–2027) – Resetting education and training for the digital age (COM(2020) 624 final) outlines the European Commission’s vision for high-quality, inclusive and accessible digital education in the EU. It is composed of two strategic priorities:
- fostering the development of a high-performing digital education ecosystem;
- enhancing digital skills and competences for the digital transformation.
The Erasmus programme was launched 35 years ago and has helped more than 10 million people to study, work or volunteer abroad. At the end of 2020, a political agreement was reached on the Erasmus+ programme for 2021–2027. It aims to support education and training in the EU by offering mobility and cooperation opportunities for higher education, vocational education and training, school education, adult education, youth and sport. It has a budget of €26.2 billion and focuses on social inclusion, green and digital transitions, and promoting young people’s participation in democratic life.
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